what is the difference between comanche and apacheis camille winbush related to angela winbush

In May 1836, Comanche and Kiowa warriors killed five men and captured five women and children at Fort Parker, 100 miles south of Dallas. [8][9], The Puebloan and Spanish population in New Mexico in 1749 was only 15,000[10] and the Comanche, despite several military reverses, began to dominate the colony, alternately trading and raiding. ps. WebThe directives used in apache2 and httpd config files are slightly different, as well as the directory structure. They subsisted on the bison herds of the Plains which they hunted for food and skins. Comanche power and their substantial wealth depended on horses, trading, and raiding. Photo: Heritage Art/Heritage Images via Getty Images. After that incident the conflict between the Spanish and Ute/Comanche became more violent. Between 1865 and 1875, the number of buffalo on the Great Plains fell from fifteen million to less than one million. But which are the differences between Cobra and Apache attack helicopters? [19], In Texas in the 1750s, the Comanche allied themselves with the group of tribes the Spanish called Norteos or northerners as they resided north of the Spanish settlements. In the 18th century the Osage expanded from their Missouri home onto the Great Plains to hunt bison and satisfy the French demand for bison robes and slaves. The resultant peace agreement in 1762 was again mostly favorable to the Comanche granting them status as allies rather than enemies of the Spanish in New Mexico. . It means enemy in the language of their Ute neighbors. As part of the discussions, the Comanche tribe was expected to provide white captives, but they only brought one young girl. In northern Kansas and Nebraska, the Comanche were sporadically at war with the Pawnee, another powerful tribe allied with the French. A sense of general panic set in, and by May several groups of Comanches and Kiowa had left the reservation. WebWhat is the difference between Comanche and Apache? There are thirteen different Apache tribes in the United States today: five in Arizona, five in New Mexico, and three in Oklahoma. The Five Civilized Tribes consist of the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole Indian Tribes. After all tribes were ordered to report to Fort Cobb or be considered hostile, General Philip Sheridan set plans in motion for the winter campaign of 186869 against the hostiles in western Oklahoma and the Staked Plains. The survivors crossed the Red River and settled near Fort Griffin. Mission. [15], With a safe-haven in New Mexico, the Comanche began to raid deep into Mexico. The Mallets met the "Laitane" (Comanche) along the Arkansas River in Colorado. The French interest was economic as opposed to the Spanish interests in colonizing, exploiting mineral wealth, and spreading Christianity among the Native American peoples. The Spanish subsequently called the Caddos the Tejas, and Spanish land east of the Trinity became known as the Province of Tejas, which later gave its . This website uses cookies so that we can provide you with the best user experience possible. [4] The French, encountering the Comanche before 1740 called the Comanche Padouca, a name they also gave to the Apache, thus causing confusion in the early history of French contact with the two peoples.[5]. Instead, the Comanche prioritized accessing the riches to be found south of the U.S. border in Mexico. The Santa F Trail became a heavily-travelled military supply route, and forts were built to protect it. In exchange for a wagon train of gifts brought by the commissioners and the payment of annual annuities, the Comanches and Kiowa signed the Medicine Lodge Treaty exchanging Comancheria for a 3 million acre (12,000km) reservation in southwestern Oklahoma. Apache processes requests with MPM-s or They chose instead to attack a nearby supply train. Five companies of Missouri volunteers were sent to garrison these posts during the summer of 1847 and quickly became engaged in fights with Plains Indians. As for the appearance of a Comanche you could usually describe them as being shorter. The indigenous peoples of the Americas were practically doomed when the Europeans came, bearing diseases that flourished in dense, semi-urban communities. By 1875, decimated by European diseases, warfare, a tide of Anglo settlement, and the near-extinction of the bison, the Comanche had been defeated by the U.S. army and were forced to live on an Indian reservation in Oklahoma. They needed Spanish protection from the Comanche. The government census estimated a drop in the Comanches' 1849 population of 20,000 to 12,000 by 1851, and the Comanches never recovered from this loss. By the late 18th century, there were two distinct groups of Comanche. The Wichitas were severely weakened by outbreaks of European diseases. WebThe Navajo occupied a portion of the Colorado Plateau adjacent to Hopi lands. The commanding officer, Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie, did not take this lightly. How does the story of Red Cloud, one of the most charismatic, cunning and brutal Native American warriors, the only American Indian chief to wage war against the U.S. Army and defeat it, go largely untold? The Navajo and the Apache are closely related tribes, descended from a single group that scholars believe migrated from Canada. [2], In 1706, Spanish soldier Juan de Ulibarri in the Pueblo settlement of Taos made the first European mention of the Comanche. The American agent took it upon himself to distribute $9,000 in gifts to the Comanches and Kiowa, and in 1853 the Kiowa and Yamparika signed their own treaty at Fort Atkinson. which means peoples language.. The Apache tribe were a strong, proud war-like people. When it was over, 300 Tonkawa had been massacred. The Rangers did nothing to prevent encroachment on Comanche lands but would retaliate if the new settlements beyond the line were attacked. WebWhile the Apache is known for its ability to fly low and fast, it might not be the best choice for mountainous areas. The religion was animistic with natural objects and animal spirits (except for dogs and horses) having various powers. Comanche history /kmnti/ is the story of the Native American (Indian) tribe which lived on the Great Plains of the present-day United States. They needed Spanish protection from the Comanche. The Ute word kmantsi, probably meaning 'enemy', was the name by which the Comanche became known. Strictly Necessary Cookie should be enabled at all times so that we can save your preferences for cookie settings. Afterwards, most of the Comanches and other tribes still on the plains returned to the agencies. What Is The Most Boring Town In Minnesota? As federal troops began to re-occupy their posts in Texas, the Great Plains and Indian Territory, government commissioners met with the plains tribes in October on the Little Arkansas River near Wichita to arrange a peace. It was a bitter struggle, and General William Sherman finally ordered the army not to pay ransom for white captives held by Indians to avoid giving them incentive for further kidnappings. Camp Cooper (commanded in 1856 by LTC Robert E. Lee) was built nearby. animistic There were no priests and few group ceremonies. A boundary line between Comancheria and Texas was alluded to, but not defined. From the 1740s onward the Comanche raided the Pawnee for slaves and the Pawnee raided the Comanche for horses.[29][30]. Your email address will not be published. The peace agreement of 1752 was favorable to the Comanche, granting them trade privileges and treatment as a sovereign nation, and freeing them to make war on the Ute. In the final days of the Civil War, the Confederacy made a final attempt to exploit the hostility of the plains tribes that had been provoked by the federal volunteers. [34] Texas had a Spanish population of perhaps 5,000. A boundary line was eventually set by the Texas governor but was to be enforced by the American army which had taken over the line of Texas forts on the frontier. The Spanish continued to give gifts and hospitality to the Comanche. We are using cookies to give you the best experience on our website. For the same reasons, Texas had to send most of its men and soldiers east to fight against the Union, as a result, most of the federal forts and outposts that had held the Comanche at bay for a generation could no longer be manned and were abandoned. The comanche are nomadic and live tepes like the apache. They were defeated in the Battle of the Twin Villages by the Taovaya and the Comanche. [28], The most powerful tribe the Comanche faced in the eastern Great Plains were the Osage who prevented the Comanche from advancing eastwards beyond approximately the middle portion of both Kansas and Oklahoma. The Comanche (/kuh*man*chee/) were the only Native Americans more powerful than the Apache. And which one is better? Unofficially sanctioned by army commanders who issued free ammunition to hunters, it destroyed the basis for the plains tribes' way of life. One bounty hunter in 1847 claimed 487 Apache scalps, according to Madleys article. [18] By that time, the Comanche had already pushed the Apache off the Great Plains into southern Texas where they became the Lipan Apache, to the deserts of the southwest, or into close proximity and alliance with the Spanish in New Mexico. How Many Middle Schools Are In Wake County? Afterwards, large groups of Cheyenne left the reservation and headed for the plains. Apache and Comanche. The Apache, Caddo, Comanche, Kiowa, Cherokee, Coushatta, Kickapoo, and Wichita tribes all have their own pages. Unfortunately, the Germans not only encroached beyond the agreed boundary, but were slow to pay, and in response the Comanches made raids. They presided over a large area called Comancheria which they shared with allied tribes, the Kiowa, Kiowa-Apache, Wichita, and after 1840 the southern Cheyenne and Arapaho. Find Out How Much Does It Cost to Watch Bally Sports? But the Apache weren't one group, the Comanche were a couple of autonomous groups that acted together more often than not. The modern term excludes the related Navajo people. The epidemic, plus a realization by both Spanish and Comanche that they had other interests and enemies, led to moves toward peace by both parties. Religion for them involved learning to please the supernatural powers who lived in rocks and animals. In October, 1871 a raid led by Quanah Parker stole seventy horses from the army at Rock Station. In 1832, 500 Comanche occupied San Antonio for several days without any resistance from Mexican soldiers. Comanche and the French, Osage, and Pawnee, Comanche and independent Texas: 1836-1845, Comanche and the United States: 1845-1875, Adams, David B., "mbattled Borderland: Northern Nuevo Len and the Indios Brbaros, 1686-1870", Adams, David B. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. The What is the difference between Comanche and Apache? The Spanish were few in numbers; the Americans were numerous. Which type of chromosome region is identified by C-banding technique? [32][33] The French were gone after 1803 when they sold Louisiana to the United States. French traders were living along the lower Missouri River and in Louisiana early in the 18th century. The Comanche (/kuh*man*chee/) were the only Native Americans more powerful than the Apache. The Americans were required by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo to prevent raids into Mexico. When he discovered the Kiowa chiefs were openly bragging about the latest raid, he ordered their arrest and sent them to Texas for trial. "[31] The Comanche controlled 200,000sqmi (520,000km2) of the Great Plains, possessed a marketable commodity with their large herds of horses, and relied on the seemingly inexhaustible herds of bison for subsistence. Afterwards, they did not consider themselves bound by the Medicine Lodge Treaty, and chose to remain on the Staked Plains. Apparently, the success rate for this treatment was very good. In December, the government decided to deal harshly with the Kiowa and Comanches to end the raids in Texas. By the time he rode in Theodore Roosevelt's inaugural parade in 1905, Quanah had amassed 100 horses, 1,000 cattle, and 250 acres (1.0km2) of cultivated farmland. The tribute extended to the Comanche dried up as the new country of Mexico had few resources to devote to its remote provinces. [20] In 1758 a large band of Norteos, including Comanches, sacked the San Saba Mission, established by the Spanish to advance northward from San Antonio and to make Christians of the Lipan. Antonia is a gifted educator, and she is widely respected within the education community. the Shakopee MdewakantonToday, the Shakopee Mdewakanton are believed to be the richest tribe in American history as measured by individual personal wealth: Each adult, according to court records and confirmed by one tribal member, receives a monthly payment of around $84,000, or $1.08 million a year. Comanche is pronounced kuh-MAN-chee. Albert Pike, the newly appointed Indian Agent for the Confederate States of America, signed two treaties with Comanches in August, 1861; one with the Penateka, and a second with the Nokoni, Yamparika, Tenawa, and Kotsoteka. mnt?i/ is an Uto-Aztecan language spoken by the Comanche, who broke away from the Shoshone in 1705 after acquiring horses. Antonia Leonard is an education expert who has dedicated her life to helping students achieve their academic goals. They also fought battles on horseback, a skill unknown among other Indian peoples. There was inter-tribal warfare and conflicts with the Comanche and Pima tribes but their main enemies were the white interlopers including the Spanish, Mexicans and Americans with whom they fought many wars due to the encroachment of their tribal lands. The Spanish and Lipan had initially been at war with each other but in 1749 they made peace in common accord to resist the Comanche threat. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. After a starvation winter, most of the Comanches and Kiowa at Fort Cobb chose to return to the plains in the summer of 1868. What is the difference between Comanche and Apache? The Spanish extended their settlements eastward onto the Great Plains and the population of New Mexico increased. The western bands, resident in New Mexico, Colorado, Kansas, and the Texas panhandle were oriented toward the Spanish settlements of New Mexico; the eastern bands in south-western Oklahoma and central Texas were oriented toward the Spanish settlements of Texas. The attack did not occur but the reputation of the Comanche as an aggressive tribe which raided sedentary peoples was established. Of the Comanche divisions, only the Yamparika, Nokoni, Penateka, and Tenewa were parties to the agreement; the Kwahada and Kotsoteka were not. Yes, it is possible to play Roblox on Oculus Quest 2 through the Virtual Desktop app. Cookie information is stored in your browser and performs functions such as recognising you when you return to our website and helping our team to understand which sections of the website you find most interesting and useful. However, the agent had learned of their departure and purpose and had alerted the army. "Great Warrior" Sherman was conducting an inspection tour of western posts, when a Kiowa war party noticed his lone ambulance and small escort. The Wichita also served as middlemen for the trade of Comanche horses to Spanish colonies in Louisiana. For the next two years, Mackenzie and his black cavalry troopers ranged the Staked Plains chasing the Kwahada. [35] In contrast, the United States had a population of 10 million in 1820 and Anglo-Americans were beginning to settle in Texas. When federal soldiers withdrew from the region entirely following the outbreak of the Civil War, Confederate troops initially replaced them. [13], Among the western Comanche, the main opposition to peace was a leader named White Bull (Toro Blanco). If the reseller buys up the tickets, fans may not have the opportunity to purchase tickets at their original cost. In May 1847, Texas allowed the German settlers near Fredericksburg and New Braunfels to make their own treaty with the Texas Comanches. The There were few other encounters, but the relentless pressure and pursuit throughout the fall and winter had its effect. Graduated from ENSAT (national agronomic school of Toulouse) in plant sciences in 2018, I pursued a CIFRE doctorate under contract with SunAgri and INRAE in Avignon between 2019 and 2022. Is the Sendit App Anonymous on Snapchat? The Comanche probably split from the Shoshone in the sixteenth century with the Comanche moving south to Colorado and becoming, as did the Eastern Shoshone, bison-hunting Great Plains nomads. The Comanches kept their promise for safe passage on the Santa Fe Trail, but remained angry about events in Texas where white settlers continued to encroach deeper and deeper into Comancheria and the Texas Rangers were still attacking them. The frustrated Indian agent at Fort Cobb resigned and went east, leaving the mess in the hands of his assistant. Is the Social Network and Job Board Fishbowl Actually Anonymous? WebComanches roamed this territory where they hunted bison and deer, traded with their neighbors, and raided their enemies settlements. WebWhat is the difference between Comanches and Apaches? In the interim, policy was set by both, and this was confusing, so the 1846 peace treaty brought very little peace to Texas. Several Comanches had recently been killed in Texas by Tonkawa scouts, and some of the first thoughts were of revenge. The war was over. The national government of Mexico was "too incapacitated by fiscal insolvency, civil war, and, ultimately, foreign intervention"[48] to assist the north. That year, the Kiowa-Comanche and Wichita agencies were merged into a single agency. The Sioux expansions had also pushed the Comanche south. Once again raids were made into Texas and Kansas, and the new reservation was used as a sanctuary to prevent pursuit by the army. The Crossword Solver finds answers to classic crosswords and cryptic crossword Even more aggravating from the Comanches' point of view were posts like Fort Stockton at Comanche Springs, which were intended to block the "Great Comanche War Trail" leading to northern Mexico. Carson had found more Comanches and Kiowa than he could chastise, and the First Battle of Adobe Walls came very close to being "Carson's Last Stand." What is the distinction between the Navajo and Apache peoples? The game was originally developed in 3D Studio Max and uses the Maya 3D graphics engine. The situation became dangerous in 1858 after the army abandoned Camp Cooper. Sitting Bull is one of the most well-known American Indian chiefs for having led the most famous battle between Native and North Americans, the Battle of Little Bighorn on June 25, 1876. The governor of New Mexico, Juan Bautista de Anza, an experienced Indian fighter, took the war to the Comanche in their own country. The Hopi Indians are the oldest Native American tribe in the World. What Are Some Weird Laws In North Dakota? In 1785, brokered by the Wichita, Pedro Vial and Comanche-speaking Francisco Xavier Chaves negotiated an agreement with the Eastern Comanche which included large gifts to the Comanche and the return by the Comanche of all Spanish prisoners they held captive. Your email address will not be published. The peace agreements with the Spanish remained mostly effective, keeping a delicate balance between "accommodation and antagonism." History and Etymology for Comanche American Spanish, from Southern Paiute kmmanci Shoshones, strangers. To halt this, soldiers began to disarm the Comanches and Kiowa who had remained on the agencies. The first record of the Comanche in Spanish Texas is 1743 when a scouting party visited San Antonio. WebWhat is the difference between Comanche and Apache? It's advised to install apache2 on Debian-based distros ( Ubuntu) and httpd on RedHat-based distros ( RedHat, CentOS, Fedora ). The Apache were also polite and sympathetic toward their own people; they were particularly friendly to the tribes most valuable members, the youngsters. LTC George Custer and the 7th Cavalry attacked a southern Cheyenne village on the Washita River in November, and Major Andrew Evans struck a Comanche village at Soldiers Spring on Christmas Day. The Cheyenne and Arapaho were allowed to live in Comancheria and, as customary, the peace makers exchanged gifts. Six hundred soldiers surrounded a band of Comanches and killed 300 men, women, and children and took more than 100 prisoners. In response to increased Indian attacks on the trail during the summer of 1860, three columns of cavalry were sent into the area on a punitive expedition. Adroit diplomacy was also a factor in maintaining their dominance and fending off enemies for more than a century. Comanche Nation is a federally recognized tribe with tribal enrollment numbers totaling 16,372 with roughly 7,763 members residing in Lawton-Ft. Sill and surrounding areas of Southwest Oklahoma. The Comanche disdained the Tonkawa for their prior service as scouts with the Texas Rangers; but the Texas Comanches had a special hatred for the Tonkawa ever since they had killed and eaten the brother of one of their chiefs. Because of this, the Apache finally had to make peace with their enemies, the Spaniards. The Comanche successfully gained Apache land and pushed the Apache farther west. In July, the command of Captain Samuel D. Sturgis made a major contact. The Apache Indians John Glanton, an outlaw who made a fortune scalping Indians in Mexico, was caught turning in scalps and ran back to the U.S. before he was caught. In traditional Apache culture, each band was made up of extended families with a headman chosen for leadership abilities and exploits in war. With each successful raid the Comanches grew stronger and the Apaches weaker. Texas Indian Facts for Kids: Answers to some of the most often asked questions regarding Texas Indian tribes. A few Comanche sent their children to Spanish schools. [38], The new Republic of Texas had immediate problems with the Comanche. Photo: Peter Turnley/Corbis/VCG via Getty Images. The Comanche Nation headquarters is located just north of Lawton, Oklahoma. Were the Apache matrilineal or patrilineal? [6], In the early 18th century the Ute and Comanche (who were probably the junior partners of the alliance at this time) established their primacy on the northern frontier of Spanish New Mexico, although their depredations consisted mostly of stealing livestock. For centuries they were fierce warriors, adept in wilderness survival, who carried out raids on those who encroached on their territory. War was averted only when traders and Indian agents advanced credit to send part of the promised gifts. Photo: Bettmann/Getty Images. WebWhat is the difference between Comanche and Apache? What are the differences between a male and a hermaphrodite C. elegans? I am currently continuing at SunAgri as an R&D engineer. The comanche, like the apache, are nomadic and live in tepes. The movement onto the Great Plains may have been stimulated by wetter climatic conditions which permitted an increase in the bison population on the Great Plains. Because of an outbreak of cholera in their camps, the Kwahada neither attended the conference nor signed the treaty. The comanche are nomadic and live tepes like the apache. Meanwhile, the Spanish in Texas were also menaced by the powerful Osage tribe on its northeastern frontier and Apache raids south of the Rio Grande River in Mexico and began seeking peace with the Comanche. In the 19th century the emigrant Five Civilized Tribes of Oklahoma and the Anglo residents of Texas presented new challenges to the Comanche. In 1826, responding to the increased threat, the government of Nuevo Leon forbade its citizens in the northern portions of the state to travel in the countryside except in groups of at least 30 armed and mounted men. The Comanche (/kuh*man*chee/) were the only Native Americans more powerful than the Apache. The calm changed suddenly with the California Gold Rush. Travelers crossed the Plains from east to west without danger. The scalped head, according to Robertson, cures very slowly and the average recovery period was two years. which meant friend. Meanwhile, there was a serious question over whose responsibility it was to deal with the Texas tribes, the federal or the state government. When this was refused, a fight broke out and the Comanches fled, but the agency was under siege for the next two days until it was relieved by troops from Fort Sill. Web1525-1870 Apaches, Utes & Mountain Men. In the autumn of 1864, Colonel Kit Carson was sent at the head of a column from Fort Bascom, New Mexico into the Staked Plains to chastise the Comanches and Kiowa. South-central United States (Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Kansas, Colorado) and northern Mexico, Comanche victory over Spain and Mexico Final Texan and United States victory, Asaro Mud Men, Goroka, Papua New Guinea. The Spanish governor organized an expedition to punish the Indians and an army of more than 700, mostly Pueblos and Apache, marched north to the Arkansas River valley and searched for two months without finding a single Ute or Comanche. How are the Apache and Comanche similar? What was the most powerful Indian tribe in North America? What do the C cells of the thyroid secrete? After an eight-day chase, he fought a battle with Kiowa, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and, presumably, some Comanches. WebApache is the collective name given to several culturally related tribes of Native Americans, aboriginal inhabitants of North America, who speak an Southern Athabaskan language. The result of this offensive by the army and Rangers was to cause trouble elsewhere. [24] In 1720, the Spanish sent out a military expedition to expel French traders from the plains, but most of the members of the Villasur expedition were killed by the Pawnee in Nebraska. In 1747, a Spanish and Puebloan force of more than 500 men attacked a Comanche and Ute camp near the Chama River, killing 107 of the Indians and capturing 206. As the frontier advanced, the American army built a new line of forts; when it advanced further, a third line was built. PS4 Fans Check This Out: When is Roblox Coming to PS4, Roblox Fans Read: Is Roblox on Oculus Quest 2. Established Native American tribes were typically regarded semi-independent countries when the United States was formed, since they lived in villages distinct from British immigrants. Is the Comanche language still spoken today? In April, 1873 they were released and sent under escort to Fort Sill. The total Apache Indian population today is around 30,000. She has received numerous awards and accolades for her work, including being named one of the "Top 10 Educators to Watch" by Education Week magazine. As Neighbors was hated by local Texans, rather than continue to fight them, he arranged to close the reservations and move the residents to Indian Territory. The peaceful Penateka were forced to leave Texas, along with tribes that had never fought Texans, including the Tonkawa, Caddo, and Delaware, who had served loyally as scouts for the Texas Rangers. (In 1822, the Mexican government estimated that the Comanche had 2,500 captives among their numbers, and that was not counting a sizeable number of persons who had voluntarily joined the tribe. of or pertaining to the Comanche people, culture, or language. The languages of any of several Athabascan-speaking peoples of the American southwest excluding Navajo, i.e. Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Lipan, Mescalero, Plains Apache, or Western Apache. The treaty was ratified in July, and funds were made available, but the responsibility for the administration of annuities was placed with the army. This slowed the raiding while the Comanches negotiated for their release. At the same time, Texas civilians stole 1,900 horses from the tribes at Fort Sill. The haciendas and ranchos have been mostly abandoned, and the people chiefly confined to the towns and cities."[47]. In April, 200 Kwahada, who had never submitted, surrendered at Fort Sill. (Oct 1992), "Embattled Borderland: Northern Nuevo Len and the Indios Brbaros, 1686-1870,", Learn how and when to remove this template message, "Towards a Context for Late Precontact Culture Change: Comanche Movement Prior to Eighteenth Century Spanish Documentation", "Extract of the Journal of the Mallet Brothers", "The Transformation of the Texas Economy", Kiowa Comanche Apache Indian Territory Project. Even Fort Dodge was attacked, and its horses stolen. From fall to early spring, the Comanche separated into small groups and were hunter-gatherers in western Colorado, especially the San Luis Valley. In return for safe passage and a promise to stop raiding in Mexico, the United States agreed to pay those tribes $18,000 per year for ten years. These defeats caused the Comanche to sue for peace. The proceeds were used to buy sheep and goats for his former enemies. Florida Agricultural And Mechanical University, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Massachusetts Institute Of Technology (Mit), Missouri University Of Science And Technology, State University Of New York Health Science Center At Brooklyn, Suny College Of Environmental Science And Forestry, The University Of North Carolina At Charlotte, The University Of Texas Health Science Center At Houston, The University Of Texas Health Science Center At San Antonio, The University Of Texas M. D. 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